Manipulatives in Mathematics Education: United States and Spain
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5294/edu.2025.28.3.4Keywords:
Education, pedagogy, mathematics, cross-cultural analysis, learningAbstract
This study seeks to bridge a significant knowledge gap in comparative studies of mathematics education regarding the practical application of knowledge across international settings. Its general objective is to analyze the use of manipulatives in learning mathematics in the USA and Spain, focusing on the Californian and Catalan regions. To this end, this research employed a comparative case study of the use of virtual manipulatives for learning mathematics, involving 80 mathematics teachers from the USA and Spain across 40 primary and secondary schools in both countries. The study has demonstrated that teachers in America make greater, more measured use of manipulatives, supported by strong curriculum alignment, staff development programs, and coaching. Nevertheless, while attitudes towards manipulatives remain highly positive in Spain, teachers have felt limited in their practice due to systemic challenges such as class size, inadequate professional training, and a lack of curriculum guidance. The study highlights that physical manipulatives are used to a greater extent within both countries, while virtual learning tools have increasingly become part of secondary education within the USA. Overall, the study reveals that the impact and frequency of manipulative use appear to be influenced not by the teacher but by the broader context, highlighting the importance of school reform initiatives that address the particular system and cultural traditions in an effort to promote more learning for the teacher and specificity in the curriculum for the successful integration of hands-on learning resources.
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